Wednesday, July 6, 2016
Monday, June 20, 2016
Arminius and the Battle of Teutoburg Forest
Prologue: In 9 AD, Publius Quinctilius Varus, governor of Germania, led the XVII, XVIII, and XIX Legions, six cohorts of auxiliaries, and three wings of cavalry from their fortifications on the Weser River north and east towards rumors of an impending uprising among locals related to him from a supposed trustworthy and reliable source, Arminius. What was to result from Varus’ decision to march from the Roman encampments would have an impact on the shape of Western Culture for the next 2000 years.
Publius Quinctilius Varus was appointed governor of the parts of Germania under Roman control in 7 AD, after several high profile political positions as governor in Africa and Syria. He also served as consul with (later emperor) Tiberius in 13 BC. He was from an unimportant family, the Quinctilii, that may have been influential in Roman politics in years past, but have become rather impoverished. He was tied to the Julii family through his marriage(second) to Augustus’ grandniece, Vispania Marcella. Varus was well favored by Augustus, and had both military and economic success from his prior positions, hence his appointment as governor of Germania.
Arminius( also known under the Germanic name, Hermann), was from the Cherusci Tribe, in what is now modern West-Central Germany. He was the son of Segimerus, a chief among the Cherusci. During his youth, he was employed by the Roman military as an auxiliary, eventually making a name for himself, and achieving the rank of Equite(knight) and receiving Roman citizenship. After his service, Arminius returned to his tribe, with the plan of uniting various Germanic peoples against a more common threat, the ever encroaching Roman Empire. Successfully he unites the Cherusci, Bructeri, Chatti and Marsi, and plans an ambush of Varus and his three legions, auxiliaries and attendants in a dense and narrow part of what is collectively known as Teutoburg Forest.
The Battle: As Varus marched his legions and attached soldiers and cavalry through a very narrow part of the forest, his line was stretched dangerously long. It was at this opportunity that Arminius gave the signal, and the Germans began their attack. Typical Germanic warfare of the past consisted of mass and disorganized assaults against an enemy, trying to rout the opposing army with sheer numbers. Arminius, having had experience with the Roman army, knew that such assaults would prove futile against a disciplined and well armored Roman legion. By hiding his men among the tree line on both sides of the narrow path, Arminius had his men swarm down on both flanks of the Romans, engaging them in a pincer-like grip. The Romans were unable to successfully form up at the onslaught of the battle. They were stretched too thinly, and were unaccustomed to the type of one-on-one fighting that made the Germans and Gauls famous for their bravery. The Germans engaged in hit and run tactics; after engaging and killing many Roman soldiers, they would retreat back into the wood lines, and hurl missiles at the Romans. This spread panic among the legionnaires, who were too frightened to chase the tribesmen into the forest proper.
After the first day battle, the Romans managed to set up night camp, and in the morning attempted to break away from the Germans, heading northwards into more open country, which eventually closed up into another forest that the Romans tried to use to make their escape. Attempting another night maneuver, the Romans marched straight into another trap that Arminius had set. At the foot of the Kalkreise Hill, Arminius had set up earthwork defenses, and recent archaeological findings have discovered that the walls used in the earth work were at least 15ft thick. The Romans found themselves trapped between the hill, the forest, and the Great Swamp. The Romans legionnaires fought to the last man, while the cavalry fled, leaving their comrades to their doom. Publius Quinctilius Varus, and many of his officers, in typical Roman fashion, committed suicide by falling upon their swords. It is estimated that 20,000 Romans died in the battle, a serious blow to both Roman pride and aspirations.
The Aftermath: The Battle of Teutoburg Forest is one of the major turning points in Western Culture. After their defeat, Tiberius did manage to lead a somewhat successful campaign against various Germanic tribes, but these actions were more punitive in nature than conquering tours. The Romans now understood that a serious campaign to conquer Germania Interior was impossible, so they fortified their forts along the natural border of the Rhine River. What the defeat of the Romans accomplished was 1.) a physical and mental blow to Roman arms and pride, and 2.) the preservation of Germanic culture, which would later in history so dominate the military and political scenes of Europe for centuries to come. The Romans were used to victory; despite a few lost battles throughout their history, the Roman army had a track record of victories unmatched by any group of people in history until that point.
If one considers Alexander the Great, and his conquering of the known world as a comparison, then they would have to consider this: Alexander had a reported army of around 40,000 men, excluding auxilaries and mercanies. He conquered territory after territory within a 13 year span, and after his death, his empire fell apart. The Romans, on the other hand, had centuries of experience in warfare, and for the most part held on to the territories they conquered. The Defeat at Teutoburg devastated Roman morale; as seen through archaeological finds in Northern Germany, the Romans made a hasty retreat back to the safety of the west side of the Rhine, leaving hordes of personal effects behind in the process.
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| Statue of Arminius |
Arminius( also known under the Germanic name, Hermann), was from the Cherusci Tribe, in what is now modern West-Central Germany. He was the son of Segimerus, a chief among the Cherusci. During his youth, he was employed by the Roman military as an auxiliary, eventually making a name for himself, and achieving the rank of Equite(knight) and receiving Roman citizenship. After his service, Arminius returned to his tribe, with the plan of uniting various Germanic peoples against a more common threat, the ever encroaching Roman Empire. Successfully he unites the Cherusci, Bructeri, Chatti and Marsi, and plans an ambush of Varus and his three legions, auxiliaries and attendants in a dense and narrow part of what is collectively known as Teutoburg Forest.
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| Battle Map of Teutoburg |
After the first day battle, the Romans managed to set up night camp, and in the morning attempted to break away from the Germans, heading northwards into more open country, which eventually closed up into another forest that the Romans tried to use to make their escape. Attempting another night maneuver, the Romans marched straight into another trap that Arminius had set. At the foot of the Kalkreise Hill, Arminius had set up earthwork defenses, and recent archaeological findings have discovered that the walls used in the earth work were at least 15ft thick. The Romans found themselves trapped between the hill, the forest, and the Great Swamp. The Romans legionnaires fought to the last man, while the cavalry fled, leaving their comrades to their doom. Publius Quinctilius Varus, and many of his officers, in typical Roman fashion, committed suicide by falling upon their swords. It is estimated that 20,000 Romans died in the battle, a serious blow to both Roman pride and aspirations.
The Aftermath: The Battle of Teutoburg Forest is one of the major turning points in Western Culture. After their defeat, Tiberius did manage to lead a somewhat successful campaign against various Germanic tribes, but these actions were more punitive in nature than conquering tours. The Romans now understood that a serious campaign to conquer Germania Interior was impossible, so they fortified their forts along the natural border of the Rhine River. What the defeat of the Romans accomplished was 1.) a physical and mental blow to Roman arms and pride, and 2.) the preservation of Germanic culture, which would later in history so dominate the military and political scenes of Europe for centuries to come. The Romans were used to victory; despite a few lost battles throughout their history, the Roman army had a track record of victories unmatched by any group of people in history until that point.
If one considers Alexander the Great, and his conquering of the known world as a comparison, then they would have to consider this: Alexander had a reported army of around 40,000 men, excluding auxilaries and mercanies. He conquered territory after territory within a 13 year span, and after his death, his empire fell apart. The Romans, on the other hand, had centuries of experience in warfare, and for the most part held on to the territories they conquered. The Defeat at Teutoburg devastated Roman morale; as seen through archaeological finds in Northern Germany, the Romans made a hasty retreat back to the safety of the west side of the Rhine, leaving hordes of personal effects behind in the process.
An Introduction to Caesar's The Gallic Wars
| Marble Bust of Julius Caesar |
Caesar wrote his Commentaries in seven consecutive books, during the time when he set out to quash the rebellious Gallic tribes in what is now modern day France, Belgium, and Switzerland. The triumvirate he formed with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus had collapsed; Crassus being killed during the Parthian Campaign in 53BCE, and Pompey having taken sides with Caesar’s political enemies in Rome[i]. Caesar needed a boost, or perhaps an excuse, for certain actions he has committed, whether legally or illegally. His Commentaries may have been a political ploy to enhance his public image in Rome, knowing that upon his return, he may be indicted on bribery or corruption charges.
Throughout the book, Caesar introduces the reader to various names of Gallic and Germanic tribes, being one of the first persons of antiquity to do such. He went so far as to describe the customs and laws of both groups, of which future historians such as Tacitus and Cassius Dio picked up on and embellished. Names of entire groups of people that once inhabited the European continent that have been lost to the ears of modern man; the Helvetii[ii]and Parii[iii], the Cimbri[iv] and Treveri[v], play such an important role in Caesar’s writings, and the past history of Europe, that the modern scholar is awed by the fact that during his campaigning, Caesar had the time to write about these various groups, whose names may have been lost forever without Caesar’s accounts of them.
Not only are tribes names mentioned and described, the key players of the Gallic War are discussed in detail. Orgetorix[vi], the leader of the Helvetii, and the first leader of a Gallic tribe to make an appearance in the Commentaries; Ambiorix[vii], the Belgic leader who so daringly defeated Caesar’s generals, Sabinus and Cotta[viii], and then disappeared across the Rhine into German lands, never to be heard from again; Titus Pullo and Lucius Vorenus[ix], two centurions of the 11th legion who were in such steep competition with each other, that they each leaped over the rampart during a siege being waged by the Gauls on a Roman fortress, and attacked the Gauls single handedly, one not wanting to be outdone by the other. Their fierce bravery touched upon Caesar, and respect was paid to them by having them mentioned by name in the Commentaries.
Though Caesar’s accounts of various peoples and events may be considered fairly accurate, there are some flaws in Caesar’s writings. For example, during his description of an elk found commonly in Gaul and Germany :
…….their shape and dappled coat are like those of goats,
But they are rather larger, have stunted horns, and legs
Without joints……[x]
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| Vercingetorix' Surrender to Caesar |
Modern scholars are of the consensus that Caesar either received this information second hand, or misinterpreted native information provided to him.
It is obvious is some aspects of the book that Caesar had taken his campaign a little too far in respect to civilian populations. Take for example of an account of the defeat of the Ubii, a Germanic people, and the following comments by Caesar:
……the Germans had deprated from their homes, and crossed
The Rhine with all their possessions. The crowd of women and children
which remained began to flee in all directions. Caesar sent the
Calvary to hunt them down….[xi]
Caesar was obvious and to the point, that the women and children of the Ubii were ran down by the Roman calvary and slaughtered. Caesar was condemned by Cato in the Senate, who went so far as to suggest giving Caesar up to the Germans. Caesar defended his actions, claiming the Germans would not put up any resistance after what had befallen the people of the Ubii. His gamble paid off.
The Commentarii de Bello Gallico is a timeless classic written over two-thousand years ago by one of the world’s most renowned characters of history. The prose and use of well formulated Latin is required reading by many educational institutions in their Latin departments. Caesar kept the names alive of many tribes of Gauls, Germans and Britons that may have passed into obscurity, had he not taken the time to describe them. Written at a time of crises in Rome, with enemies of Caesar within the Republics borders and without, Gauis Julius Caesar proved not only his prowess in battle and politics, but also his skill in the literary arts.
[i] Cassius Dio, Roman History. 37.54-58
[ii] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 1.1-15
[iii] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 6.3
[iv] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 1.33,40
[v] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 1.37
[vi] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 1.2
[vii] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 5.24-41
[viii] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 6.37
[ix] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 5.44
[x] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 6.27
[xi] Julius Caesar, The Gallic War. 4.14
Zenobia's Defiance of Rome
During the reign of Aurelian (270-275), there was an obscure rebellion in the Eastern provinces by one of history’s most well-known women: Zenobia. The rebellion and short reign of the Palmyrene Empire had little impact on history itself, but the significance and obscurity of a woman donning the purple during the Roman Empire has made a legend of Queen Zenobia.
Aurelian assumed the purple in 270AD, after Quintillus, with approval of the Senate, seized power; the Legions rejected his ascension, and Quintillus’ and his supporters were defeated in 270. After his rise to power, Aurelian turned his attentions to the Vandals and Sarmatians, who had been making excursions into Northern Italy. After their subsequent defeat, he turned to battling the Alammani, a Germanic tribe that had been plaguing Roman borders for years. With their defeat at Pavia in 271, and the defeat of the Goths in Pannonia, he set out for Palmyra, and the reconquest of the Eastern Provinces, usurped by Zenobia.
Zenobia, born ca. 240AD in Syria, was the daughter of Julius Aurelious Zenobius, a high ranking citizen among the Syrians. There are claims that her mother was an Egyptian, and Zenobia herself claimed descendancy from Cleopatra VII, of Caesar and Antony fame. Around the year 258AD, she married the King of Palmyra, Septimius Odaenathus. The marriage lasted until 267AD, when her husband and stepson were both assassinated. It was at this time, and setting precedence in Roman history, that instead of remarrying, Zenobia assumed the purple for herself, bestowing upon herself the title of Augusta. Ignoring any conquests and aggressions against the Sassanid Empire (Persia), she turned her attention to the south, conquering Egypt in 269AD. The Roman governor of Egypt at the time, Tenagino Probus, tried to put up a futile resistance. He was subsequently captured and beheaded.
After the conquest of Egypt, Zenobia turned
northwards, with the aim of taking Asia Minor. She made it as far as Ankara. At this time, the entire Eastern half of the Roman Empire was under her control. The Sassanids recognized her power, and retained a peaceful border and trade with the Palmyrenes.
During the same period, Aurelian was embattled in the reconquest of Gaul. After the pacification of the Gallic provinces, he headed east, to regain the last portion of the empire still held by usurpers. Hearing upon his impending arrival into Syria, Zenobia mustered her forces, and in 272AD, near the city of Antioch, Zenobia suffered her first defeat. Later, in 273AD, after another loss at the hands of Aurelian, Zenobia fled with her son East, towards the Sassanid Empire, and hopes of escape. She was subsequently captured by Roman horsemen near the Euphrates River.
As was the policy of almost every Roman emperor at the time to put to death any usurper or supposed ascendant to the purple, but in the case of Zenobia, the emperor Aurelian made an exception. In 274AD, Zenobia entered the city of Rome, secured in chains made of gold, paraded in an open chariot for the general populace to see. An amnesty was declared by Aurelian, possibly due to Zenobia’s fame and beauty. She was granted a land parcel in Tibur (modern Tivoli, Italy).
Zenobia has captured the imaginations of historians, scholars and the curious alike. In the traditions of Boudicca and Joan d’ Arc, Zenobia displayed the power a woman could wield in a time when men were the dominant force. Her gender alone should have been an object of contempt by men; her beauty desirous and protected. Instead, she led armies, often marching on foot at the head of a column, commanded the obedience of her subjects, and thumbed her nose at the world’s only superpower at the time.
Zenobia’s rebellion may have foreshadowed on events yet to come. The Eastern provinces were always tumultuous. The Jews and their rebellions; the incursions by Persian warlords, the rise of Constantine and the Byzantine Empire, and finally the conquest by the Arabs in the name of Islam has made the region suffer one usurper or conquerer after another. What made the Palmyrene insurrection stand out was the fact that a woman was at the helm; a woman whose fame and beauty and legacy is the topic of debate and study even in modern times.
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| Zenobia |
Aurelian assumed the purple in 270AD, after Quintillus, with approval of the Senate, seized power; the Legions rejected his ascension, and Quintillus’ and his supporters were defeated in 270. After his rise to power, Aurelian turned his attentions to the Vandals and Sarmatians, who had been making excursions into Northern Italy. After their subsequent defeat, he turned to battling the Alammani, a Germanic tribe that had been plaguing Roman borders for years. With their defeat at Pavia in 271, and the defeat of the Goths in Pannonia, he set out for Palmyra, and the reconquest of the Eastern Provinces, usurped by Zenobia.
Zenobia, born ca. 240AD in Syria, was the daughter of Julius Aurelious Zenobius, a high ranking citizen among the Syrians. There are claims that her mother was an Egyptian, and Zenobia herself claimed descendancy from Cleopatra VII, of Caesar and Antony fame. Around the year 258AD, she married the King of Palmyra, Septimius Odaenathus. The marriage lasted until 267AD, when her husband and stepson were both assassinated. It was at this time, and setting precedence in Roman history, that instead of remarrying, Zenobia assumed the purple for herself, bestowing upon herself the title of Augusta. Ignoring any conquests and aggressions against the Sassanid Empire (Persia), she turned her attention to the south, conquering Egypt in 269AD. The Roman governor of Egypt at the time, Tenagino Probus, tried to put up a futile resistance. He was subsequently captured and beheaded.
 |
| Palmyra |
After the conquest of Egypt, Zenobia turned
northwards, with the aim of taking Asia Minor. She made it as far as Ankara. At this time, the entire Eastern half of the Roman Empire was under her control. The Sassanids recognized her power, and retained a peaceful border and trade with the Palmyrenes.
During the same period, Aurelian was embattled in the reconquest of Gaul. After the pacification of the Gallic provinces, he headed east, to regain the last portion of the empire still held by usurpers. Hearing upon his impending arrival into Syria, Zenobia mustered her forces, and in 272AD, near the city of Antioch, Zenobia suffered her first defeat. Later, in 273AD, after another loss at the hands of Aurelian, Zenobia fled with her son East, towards the Sassanid Empire, and hopes of escape. She was subsequently captured by Roman horsemen near the Euphrates River.
As was the policy of almost every Roman emperor at the time to put to death any usurper or supposed ascendant to the purple, but in the case of Zenobia, the emperor Aurelian made an exception. In 274AD, Zenobia entered the city of Rome, secured in chains made of gold, paraded in an open chariot for the general populace to see. An amnesty was declared by Aurelian, possibly due to Zenobia’s fame and beauty. She was granted a land parcel in Tibur (modern Tivoli, Italy).
Zenobia has captured the imaginations of historians, scholars and the curious alike. In the traditions of Boudicca and Joan d’ Arc, Zenobia displayed the power a woman could wield in a time when men were the dominant force. Her gender alone should have been an object of contempt by men; her beauty desirous and protected. Instead, she led armies, often marching on foot at the head of a column, commanded the obedience of her subjects, and thumbed her nose at the world’s only superpower at the time.
Zenobia’s rebellion may have foreshadowed on events yet to come. The Eastern provinces were always tumultuous. The Jews and their rebellions; the incursions by Persian warlords, the rise of Constantine and the Byzantine Empire, and finally the conquest by the Arabs in the name of Islam has made the region suffer one usurper or conquerer after another. What made the Palmyrene insurrection stand out was the fact that a woman was at the helm; a woman whose fame and beauty and legacy is the topic of debate and study even in modern times.
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